Investigation into the relationship between the density of fresh water shrimps in fleet brook and the flow rate of water brook Essays

Investigation into the relationship between the density of fresh water shrimps in fleet brook and the flow rate of water brook Essays Investigation into the relationship between the density of fresh water shrimps in fleet brook and the flow rate of water brook Essay Investigation into the relationship between the density of fresh water shrimps in fleet brook and the flow rate of water brook Essay Essay Topic: Into the Wild Fresh water shrimps (gammarus pulex) are crustacean living in many rivers and streams of this country. They prefer to live in flowing fresh water environments which often has better oxygenated waters that still water environments.2 Aim The aim of my investigation will be to determine the relationship, if any, between the gammarus pulex (fresh water shrimp) population density (the number of shrimps) and the rate of water flow at particular sites of Shir Burn Brook. Preliminary work For my preliminary work, a variety of sampling techniques were carried out to collect samples of freshwater organisms in Shir Burn Brook. The methods include the kick sampling technique and the prodding sampling technique. The range of the flow rate of water in Shir Burn Brook was found to be 0.05m/s-0.25m/s. The samples collected also enabled me to correctly classify and thus allowing me to recognize gammarus pulex. Samples were also collected in a static water environment to enable me to differentiate between the species gammarus pulex and its static water relatives, grangonyx pseudogracilis. Kick samples were taken at different site in the brook. The numbers of freshwater shrimps found at each of these sites are 20, 35, 60, 15, 24. This shows me the range of the number gammarus pulex I should expect. These figures gave me a rough guide on the range of the numbers of gammarus pulex living in the brook. This means that I have a rough estimate of the numbers of shrimps I expect to find during my investigation. Hypothesis: There will be higher densities of gammarus pulex present in areas of faster water flow. The results should show a positive relationship between the rate of flow at a site in the stream and the number of shrimps found at the site. I believe this will be due to the variation in oxygenation of the water. As the water flows faster, the movement will mean that more oxygen can be dissolved into the water, creating a higher dissolved oxygen level in the water. The increased amount of oxygen will allow larger numbers of shrimps to thrive. Null hypothesis 1. There will be no relationship between the population density of gammarus pulex and the water flow rates of sites in Shir Burn Brook where the gammarus pulex are collected. 2. There is no correlation between the dissolved oxygen level of the water of the different sites of Shir Burn Brook and the rate of flow of water at these sites. Background information to explain hypothesis Site The Fleet is a man-made brook by diversion of Shir Burn Brook (TM075314) in the 19th century. The purpose of the Fleet was to deliver water to be used by the steam turbines in the near by railway station down stream.1 It runs through a clearing in woodlands. It is relatively unpolluted with nitrates and phosphate levels within the normal guidelines. As with any flowing fresh water habitat, there are large numbers of freshwater shrimp dwelling there.1 Gammarus pulex Gammarus pulex is a species of freshwater shrimps. Fresh water shrimps belong to the order of the amphipoda. A typical amphipod crustacean is flattened from side to side, and the body when at rest is curved round to form an arch. Gammarus pulex is found swimming on its side. When it is moving the hind parts of its body straightens out, only to contract again suddenly into its normal curved position as soon as the creature stops. They are often found under stones or on the soft surface of the mud, and when disturbed scud rapidly away to shelter. The male is about 25mm in length and the females slightly smaller. Their colour is usually lightish brown. Fresh water shrimps are largely scavengers, feeding on decaying organic matter, but they are also known to devour other smaller creatures. Gammarus pulex are found abundantly in freshwater habitats in the British Isles. Care should be taken during classification to differentiate between the species gammarus pulex and grangonyx pseudogracilis which are usually found in static water environments.2 Flow rate of water Velocity of water varies throughout streams. This is due to the friction between the water and the stream bed. It is therefore expected that deeper parts of the stream will have higher rates of water flow since the surface in contact with stream bed-water volume area is smaller, meaning less friction. Depth is therefore a good indication of the flow rate at any site in the stream. Slower flow rates of water will allow small sediments of mud to develop on the bed of the stream. In faster sites, however only larger substrates such as pebbles are allowed to deposit while substrates that are too small are carried off by the water. The stony bed of the stream are especially suited for the gammarus pulex as there legs will allow them to cling on to rocks, this would be less possible with a muddy substrate.3 Some species of fresh water fauna are in a similar niche to the gammarus pulex will not all be designed to with stand the turbulence of the water. Therefore, at sites with higher water speeds, the diversity of species present there will be less. This means that there will be less interspecies competition for all the essentials which the gammarus requires (e.g. planktonic foodstuffs, oxygen, space for shelter).4 Dissolved oxygen and temperature. The solubility of oxygen from air, at normal atmospheric pressure, in pure fresh water is related to the temperature of the water by the equation: Cs = 475à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½(33.5 + t ) 5 Where Cs is the solubility of O2 in water in mg/l and t is the temperature. It is obvious that if more oxygen is dissolved in the water, there will be more of it available for the respiration of fresh water fauna living in the stream. Respiration provides energy in the form of ATP allowing the metabolisms in the animals bodies to occur.6 The oxygen concentration in the streams is expected to be higher in concentration compared to static aquatic environment. The distribution of oxygen is also expected to be more even than static water habitats. This is all due to the movement of the water in streams allowing more oxygen to dissolve and subsequently mixing the oxygen evenly. Nitrates and phosphates Nitrogen and phosphorus are basic elements in all living matter. Nitrates and phosphates therefore are not unexpected to be found dissolved in Nitrate is an essential provider of nitrogenous elements for living organisms. Nitrogen is essential for the synthesis of protein and nucleotides in most living things. Nitrogen is recycled through the biosphere by the nitrogen cycle.7 Dead and decaying organic materials (in this case dead leaves) are broken down by denitrifying bacteria inhabiting the water. The nitrogenous molecules are converted into nitrates Nitrate and phosphates are regulators of organic growth. The free flowing algae and small planktonic forms are affected directly. High levels of nitrates and phosphates often stimulate their growth. Gammarus feed on these. Therefore if more plankton are in the stream due to the nitrate and phosphates, the number of gammarus will increase also. The problem with nitrate and phosphates is that when excessive amounts are present (often due to soil leaching, effluent produced by farms, and human effluent) algal growth is intensified leading to eventual deoxygenation of the water eventually causing eutrophication. Thus there will be a decrease in the number of gammarus found in the water. 8 Variables and Key variables Explain Independent, the different rates of flow of the Dependent Factor / Variable Effect on the project Control method Density of fresh water shrimps This is what is tested Flow rate of river This is the key variable of the investigation. It is expected that a higher flow rate of water will lead to higher gammarus population densities, and lower water flow rate will lead to smaller gammarus populations. Dissolve oxygen level of water For all aerobic organisms, oxygen is essential for their survival. Thus, a higher concentration of dissolved will enable a larger population of gammarus to exist in an area providing other factors are not limiting. Control variables Nitrate levels in water This will increase the algal populations in the water. Though sustainable amount of nitrates in the stream will lead to more foodstuffs for the gammarus and thus increase their population, high levels of nitrates caused primarily by pollution will lead to diminished shrimp population as the result to the effects of eutrophication. This variable is sampled at each site so that it is ensured that the nitrate level throughout the stream is constant. It is expected to be constant since the movement of the water will mix any dissolved nitrates till it is in equilibrium in the water. Phosphate levels in water Like the nitrate levels, this abiotic factor will cause fluctuating levels of micro organisms in the stream. The phosphate level in the water is tested at every site. This again ensures that the phosphate concentration is constant throughout all of the tested sites as expected. The phosphate compound is expected to be distributed evenly in the water due to the movement of the currents. Water temperature There will be an optimal temperature range at which gammarus will like to live. If a section of the river is out of this range, the number of gammarus found there will be lower than other sites. The water temperature is monitored at every site. This again ensures that the temperature of the water is constant throughout every site. The water of the brook should be of very similar temperatures since the flowing water currents will distribute the heat evenly throughout the river. Where the water temperature is significantly different from the other sites tested, another site with a more acceptable water temperature will be chosen to be sampled. pH of water There again will be a range of pH of water outside of which few gammarus will survive. Sites whose water pH is too low or high will not contain many gammarus. The pH of the water is tested at every site. This is to make sure that every site tested all have the same pH. Sites whose pH is significantly different from all of the other sites are not chosen to take samples from. The pH is expected to remain fairly consistent throughout the stream. Leaf coverage of the sky above the brook If a section of the brook is covered by leaves, the chance of a dead leave falling into the brook is greatly increased. Since gammarus pulex feeds primarily on decaying plant material, the populations of freshwater shrimp in these regions will be expected to be greater than regions with no leaf cover. The percentage leaf coverage is recorded at the sites where samples are taken. It is made sure that the leaf coverages at all these sites are similar. This shall not prove to be difficult since the brook runs through a wooded area. Seasonal variations Due to the life cycle of the fresh water shrimps, there will be times in the year were there will be small amounts of the gammarus making sampling difficult. This is over come by taking all of the samples in a day. The investigation is conducted in summer when there is sufficient numbers of shrimps in the river. Range of samples and number of repeats At least ten different sites of the stream should be sampled. This will give me a suitable amount of data to adequately perform statistical tests such as Spearmans rank coefficient. The range of the water flow rate of the sites will be from about 0.05m/s 0.25m/s as I have discovered in my preliminary work. This will provide an adequate range for the above ten sites of data to be taken, e.g.: 0.05m/s 0.07m/s 0.09m/s 0.11m/s 0.13m/s 0.15m/s 0.17m/s 0.19m/s 0.21m/s 0.23m/s In practice it will be difficult in the natural environment of to select sites with these exact flow speeds of water. Rather than findinf sites with precisely the same flow rate of the above, ten sites with suitably different flow rates and of suitable range is used to take the samples from. At each site, the site is repeatedly sampled for ten times. This will allow me to calculate the mean of each site and to identify any anomalous samples that were taken. Apparatus A wide range of equipments are needed for sample collection and the monitoring of the aboitic variables of the different sites of the stream. The possible sampling techniques are also considered here as the preference of any one of the methods will invariably affect the choices of apparatus. Kick sampling Prod sampling Needs large area to take each sample, So the sample area may not e of equal flow rate Not much substrate at some sites. Prodding method difficult in picking up samples. Use of apparatus Apparatus available Apparatus Chosen Reason for choice Effect on precision and reliability To measure flow rate of rive at different sites Pooh stick method Impellor method Impellor method The impellor will enable me to determine the rate of water flow at the bed of the stream. Whereas the Pooh stick method will only tell me the surface flow rate. The impellor and flow rate counter will give the speed of water flow to the nearest 0.1m/s. it also eliminates any human error To measure water temperatures Mercury thermometer Digital thermometer Digital thermometer It is more accurate if the thermometer is always left in the water when the temperature reading is taken. The level of the stream is on a very low level, making the accurate reading of the mercury thermometer very difficult. Furthermore, the digital thermometer will record the temperature to the nearest 0.1oC, whereas the accuracy of the spirit thermometer is at best à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.25oC. The digital will give us the temperature of the water to a greater degree of accuracy (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.05oC). This reduces the precision error from the mercury thermometer by ten fold. Human error is eliminated by not having to take a reading of the temperature at the correct eye level. There is no longer need to estimate when the reading lies between two graduation marks. To measure water pH level Digital pH meter Universal indicator Digital pH meter The digital pH meter will give an accurate qualitative pH reading to two decimal places. The universal indictor will allow me to estimate the pH by matching the colour of the test solution with a colour chart. This is extremely prone to errors in that it is often very difficult to obtain test solutions with exact matching colours as the chart. The digital meter gives the pH to a far greater degree of accuracy. There is no comparison with colour charts needed. Care should be taken to ensure that the pH meter is properly calibrated before use. To measure dissolved oxygen concentrations of water. Diaphragm dissolved oxygen meter Diaphragm dissolved oxygen meter (0.0-19.9mg/l) This will give the dissolved oxygen level of the water. There is not another method that is both as accurate and as easily performed as this, making it ideal for project work in the wild. This is the only applicable method of testing the oxygen content of the water in the stream. It is also the most accurate method that could be used. The dissolved oxygen concentration of the water will have to be tested on site rather than on samples taken back to the laboratory. This is because that some oxygen will enter or leave the water in the sample bottles during transporting to the laboratory. To obtain dissolved nitrate concentrations of water. Reflectometer Indicator strips Reflectometer The reflectometer gives the nitrate concentration quantitatively rather than a qualitative result from the indicator strips. It gives the concentration of nitrate in water in units of mg/l. Reflectometry allows the conversion of a single nitrate presence test in to a qualitative nitrate concentration analysis. As the name suggests, the test is conducted by reflection light on an indicator strip which will undergoes a colour change in the presence of nitrate. The strip changes colour in proportion to the concentration of nitrate in the water. The reflectometer is calibrated to detect the degree of this change and convert it into a quantitative concentration of nitrates. To obtain dissolved phosphate concentrations of water. Reflectometer Indicator strips Reflectometer (for high phosphate levels) Indicator strip and reagents kit (for low phosphate levels: 3.0mg/l Similar to the nitrate concentration test, the reflectometer gives the concentration of phosphate in the water quantitatively. One difference between testing for phosphate and nitrate is that there is going to be much less phosphate expected to be dissolved in the water than nitrate. If the nitrate concentration is smaller than 3.0mg/l, this reflectormeter will register the concentration only as low. Under these circumstances, another technique is used. In this technique, 5cm3 of water sample is used and a series of two reagents are added to it. The colour change underwent is compared to the colour changes on a chart. This gives the phosphate concentration to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.25mg/l accuracy. The reasons are similar to those for testing the nitrate concentrations of water. The phosphate low concentration test will present a range of five distinctive colour changes. These will correspond to the concentrations of 0.0mg/l, 0.5mg/l, 1.0mg/l, 1.5mg/l, 2.0mg/l, and 2.5mg/l. This give the phosphate level to a greater degree of accuracy the reflectometers for higher concentrations of phosphates, although the over all precision error will remain similar (0.5à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.5 = 1.0 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 5.0) To measure the depth of brook at different sites. Meter rule Meter rule The meter rule will be most suitable as only a rough guide for the depth of the brook is to be obtained. The waster will leave a mark on the ruler from which the depth can be taken. The meter rule will give the depth of the brook to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1mm. This is of an acceptable accuracy as only a rough guide of the depth of the stream at the sampling site is requires. To collect sample kicked up. 0.50 meter net width. 0.25 meter net width. 0.5mm holes. 1mm holes. 0.50m wide net with 1mm holes in the netting material with 2m handle. As kick sampling is preferred, as net of the biggest width should be used to ensure that all organisms disturbed by the kick sampling is collected. As gammarus pulex are larger than 1mm, the pores in the net will allow substrate to filter through while retaining the gammarus to be sampled. The biggest possible net is used to ensure that most of the sample kicked up from the stream bed is collected. A net with 1mm pores is used to allow mud particles to pass through the net. Less mud will be transferred to the vessel in which the gammarus pulex are counted. This means the water in the vessel will be clearer which means any gammarus pulex present can be spotted more easily. To mark out site of sample taking. 0.50m by 0.50m quadrants 1.00m by 1.00m quadrants. 0.50 x 0.50m quadrant. A suitably large area of the stream will be marked out by this quadrant for sampling. At the same time the quadrant is not so big so that the speed of water flow does not vary within the area enclosed by the quadrant. A good sized quadrant will allow a site to be marked out for sampling. The quadrant chosen will increase the reliability of the test by allowing a large enough area with the same flow rate to be sampled. Apparatus required to classify and count the numbers of gammarus pulex in each sample. White enamel tray Pipette Plastic spoon. White enamel tray Pipette Plastic spoon. A white enamel tray will offer a light background to contrast the darker colours of the gammarus pulex so that they can be easily spotted. Pipette and plastic spoons will allow gammarus to be removed from enamel tray once they are counted. This avoids one gammarus being counted more than one time. Several major measures are to be take ensure the accuracy of the investigation. Water tamparature, oxygen concentrations, and water samples are collected before any sample is taken. This ensures that the abiotic variables of the water is not disturbed before they are measure. Whilst sampling, always work from down stream to up stream. This means that sites up stream from where the sample is taken is not disturbed. For each sample, the same number of kicks is done with the same hardness. From my preliminary work, kicking each spot ten times gives an adequate numbers of shrimps in each sample. It was seen that if the shrimp population density at a site is high, kicking 10 times brings up large number of gammarus pulex. At areas with low gammarus concentration however, only small numbers of gammarus are collected despite kicking ten times. Method 1. Select 10 sites in the river with 5 suitably ranged flow rates. This can be estimated by firstly measuring the depth of the brook at that point with a meter ruler. Make sure there are no drastic differences in percentage branch cover by using a section of hose pipe. 2. Once a site is chosen, the dissolved oxygen level and the water temperature must be measured first. This means that the water is no disturbed before the measuring which could lead to anomalous results. Water dissolved O2 levels Submerge probe in water. Do not sub merge the electrical wires. Move probe gently in water and wait for dissolve O2 level reading to equilibrate on digital display. Record the dissolve oxygen level in mg/l. Temperature Submerge metal part of thermometer into the water. Water for readings to equilibrate Record the water temperature. 3. Water sample is taken with a 150ml water sample bottle. The water sample should be taken from as close to the bottom of the stream as possible as this is the immediate surrounding of the freshwater shrimps. 3. The flow rate of the water is then tested with an impellor. The impellor device is placed in to the water. When in rotates freely, the digital counter is switched on. A flow rate speed is then given after 30 seconds of testing. Wait another 30 seconds to ensure that the reading displayed is correct since the first reading could be erroneous. 4. Before taking the sample, fill a white porcelain tray with water from the brook. This will allow any fauna collected to survive while the sample is being counted. 5. A 50cm x 50cm quadrat is then placed into the brook. Collect the sample by using the kick sampling technique on areas within the quadrat. The substrate is kicked ten times with the same hardness. The disturbed substrate and organisms is then collected by the net placed down stream. 6. The sample in the net is emptied in to a porcelain tray. It is rinsed with water in the porcelain tray to ensure no life forms are stuck on to the net. 7. Any gammarus pulex identified in the sample is counted. To avoid counting the same shrimp twice, the counted shrimps are removed by a plastic spoon or pipette in to a plastic palette. Once counting is completed the shrimps are returned back in to the brook. 8. All of the remaining substrate and fauna in the porcelain tray are returned in to the river also. 9. Within the vicinity of the quadrant, choose another undisturbed site around 15cm up stream and repeat the process above. A site upstream is used to ensure that the site used is not disturbed when the previous sample is taken. 10. Ten samples should be taken altogether from a site with a certain flow rate. 11. The above is to be repeated with the other nine sites. Testing of water samples The pH, nitrate, and phosphate levels are tested in the laboratory due to the nature of the equipment which has to be used. Nitrate 1. Set test 261 on reflectonmeter. 2. Dip NO3- indicator strip in water sample. 3. Start 60 second count down. 4. The indicator strip should change to a purple colour if nitrates are present. 5. Insert the strip in to the reflectonmeter after 55 seconds. 6. Record the nitrated concentration displayed (mg/l) Phosphate 1. Put 5ml of water sample in to a small bottle. 2. Add in with it 10 drops of H2SO4 (care corrosive). Shake to mix. 3. Select test 124 on reflectonmeter. 4. Start 90 sec countdown. 5. Dip indicator strip in sample. 6. There will not be any colour change if low amounts of phosphate are present. 7. If phosphate levels are below 3mg/l, the reflectonmeter will display LOW. If this happens, use the low phosphate test as below. Low Phosphate 1. Put 5ml of water sample in to a small bottle. 2. Add in with it 5 drops of H2SO4 (care corrosive). 3. Add 1 measure of Reagent 2 then shake for 2min to mix. 4. There should be a colour change of the solution. Compare the colour change with the chart provided to ascertain phosphate level. pH Insert digital pH meter into water sample. Swirl around and wait till reading equilibrates. Record the pH. Safety precautions Make sure that there is someone around at all times, and do not work alone. Do not sample areas in the brook which is too deep. Wear rubber gloves while sampling to avoid infections. Carry a mobile phone in case of an emergency. Give mobile contact numbers to staff. Sign in and out of the field centre so that the staffs know my whereabouts. Analysis of results I will calculate the standard deviation for the data collected from each site of the stream. This will tell me the diversity of the data collected at these sites. I will plot the graph of shrimp density against water current flow. This will inform me of any correlation that may be present between the two variables. I will carry out Spearmans correlation to establish the strength of the correlation between the variables above. I will plot the graph of rate of water flow against dissolve oxygen concentration. This will inform me of any correlation that may be present between the two variables. I will carry out Spearmans correlation to establish the strength of the correlation between the variables above. If there seem to be a linear proportionality between any of the two pairs of variables above, I will calculate the regression line which will enable me to plot a line of best fit onto my graph. This will allow me to carry out interpolations of the data which could give me a chance to carry out further studies in the future to see whether the interpolations are reliable, thus determining the accuracy of this study. By looking at the data for the dissolved oxygen concentration at the different sites and the rate of water flow at each site, it is obvious that there is no correlation between the two variables as I had expected. I will still plot a graph between the two variables and carry out spearmans rank correlation coefficient to support the null hypothesis. Below are examples of how I carried out the statistical analysis. Spearmans rank coefficient Flow rate of water /m/s Density of gammarus pulex R1 R2 d d2 7 8 13 22 14 16 12 7 19 13 ? Conclusion * There is a positive correlation between the current flow rate and the density of gammarus pulex found at the site. * The abiotic factors tested remains constant throughout the river, it is therefore assumed that the varying densities of gammarus pulex collected at different sites are not affected by these. The constant nature of abiotic factors is caused by the moving nature of the water. Any nitrate, phosphate, and oxygen will be well mixed to obtain equilibrium. The temperature of the water remained constant for the same reason. * Contrary to my prediction, the dissolved oxygen level in the stream was indeed higher than that in still water. * If varying oxygen levels are not the main cause for the diversity of shrimp density, the cause could be attributed to the different nature of substrates found at different sources. * Faster sections of the stream have more small stones under which the gammarus may cling for shelter to avoid the current. The stone acts as a barrier for the gammarus against the water. Thus the numbers of gammarus in these faster, rockier sections thrive. In slower sections of the stream, more sediment is deposited. This leads to muddy sections of the river bed. Here, gammarus will have less protection from the streams currents. They would have to burrow under the surface of the muddy substrate. This is far difficult than hiding behind a stone. Smaller numbers of gammarus will be able to remain there, thus its density is the lowest in slower sections of the river. * At faster sections of the stream, fewer other species of fresh water organisms will be able to survive due to them being unable to cling in to rocks and being washed away. This means there is less overlapping of the niches of organisms and thus less competition for the shrimps. This means the shrimp population is able to grow larger than areas with slower current speeds.9 To be sure of the assumption above, more tests need to be carried out in site with flow rates of between 0.05-0.15m/s and ;0.05m/s. Discussion Percentage branch cover. Substrate quality. I mentioned carrying out further tests to find out the accuracy of interpolations make from the available data, it is however more likely that as the flow rate of water is increased further, the increase in the number of gammarus found at these sites will not increase in the same proportions as before. A graph of this is shown below: This is due to other limiting factors such as intra species competition. Evaluation Assumptions made to limit In reality, a wide range of factors would act along with the speed of water flow to affect the gammarus population density. Assumptions were made that other factors will not vary greatly since the sampling was conducted in a single river. Although many important variables were tested to confirm that they are indeed fairly constant, there are fluctuations in the concentration of nitrate () at the different sites. This probably will have had an effect for the sample data. For example, the nitrate concentration at the site with the water flow rate of 0.18m/s is 53mg/l compared with the rest of the sites having a nitrate concentration of about 47mg/l. It is instances like this which may limit the reliabilities of the findings. There may be other abiotic factors which I did not have the means to measure affecting the gammarus pulex density. For example, the calcium carbonate concentration of the water is an important issue concerning the density of shrimps. Shrimps require calcium to form and repair their shells. The assumption was made that all of the shrimps which were collected in each sample were correctly classified and tallied. The fact is that it was far from certain that every single shrimp in sample is indeed counted. The classification of the gammarus made difficult by the amount of substrate brought up along with each sample. Large numbers of shrimps in a single sample made counting difficult since they are mostly fast moving. Difficulties caused by method The method caused unavoidable disturbances to both the water and the substrates of the river bed other than that of the sampled area. This is due to that many groups are conductiong investigations in the stream at once. The disturbed water meant that the various abiotic variables of the river is disturbed. It also affects the speed of water flow as people standing in the river unavoibly obstructs the flow of the river. Sources of error Limitations of method * Uneven kicking It is very hard to control the amount of stream bed disturbed by each kick. Although the number of kicks is kept constant, it is very hard to keep constant the area and amount of substrates and fauna sampled each time. * Not all disturbed substrate collected Due to the width of the net, it is impossible to collect every bit of potential sample that is kicked up. * Equipment cross contamination The reflectometers, pH meters which were shared between the groups could have been contaminated with the samples of other groups. Thus giving a higher NO3- level that the actual value etc. * Not all shrimps sampled It cannot be guaranteed that every gammarus collected in the sample will be counted. This could be caused by the size pf the gammarus, problems with identifying, and gammarus hiding below substrates brought up with the sample. The numbers of gammarus counted should be treated as a bare minimum. * Slightly different speeds at different sites Although several impellor readings are taken at different areas within the 0.25m2 area within the quadrat, it is more than likely that there will be areas in the site where the speed will vary. * The dissolved O2 level meter did not work at the site. Therefore the dissolved O2 levels of the water samples collected in bottles were tested back at the lab. To avoid oxygen to be mixed in to the water while inside the bottle, the bottle was filled completely full to the brim. Due to the concave shape of the lids, some air bubbles remained in the bottle. This could have had an effect on the dissolved oxygen levels recorded. * Other investigations taking place upstream * There were other people conducting investigations up stream. This means that the samples I collect could contain some shrimps that have been disturbed and the carried down the stream by the current. This will increased the number of shrimps I collect in some samples. * Errors in classifying species of shrimp * Precision errors of apparatus ; Meter Rule à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.5mm ; Flow meter à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.01m/s ; Oxygen meter à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 1.5% of total scale of 0.0 19.9mg/l ; Reflectometer à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.5mg/l ; Digital thermometer à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.3 ; Digital pH meter à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½0.2 These contribute to the percentage errors of the results. Anomalous results Anomalous results are highlighted in red in the result table. These are excluded when the average for each site is calculated. This is so that it will affect the reliability of the data. The anomalies would probably have arisen due to the limitations to the method listed above. Improvements * Sample a larger number of sites to further establish a trend. * Sample different rivers to see if the trend is replicated. * Find regions in the stream where the water current is faster to see if the trend continues linearly, or whether there is a cut off point to this positive correlation. * Retest sites which seem to give anomalous results. * Investigate the contribution of substrate quality to shrimp density * Reflectometers could have been contaminated with water samples of other groups. Since the equipment is shared, other groups using the reflectometer to test water samples would have their water left in the testing slot. This will results in the indictor strip changing its colour to another shade thus registering an anomalous NO3 reading. Further work Futher work should be conducted to investigate the relationship between the substrate quality of different sites of the stream and the number of gammarus pulex these sites contain. * Investigate whether the diversity of fresh water fauna is linked with the speed of the water flowing at the point. This will show whether interspecies competition has a major effect on the population density gammarus pulex.

Stasis Theory Definition, Use And Key Principles

Stasis Theory Definition, Use And Key Principles Statis Theory For Your Academic Success Some students think that the only goal of a writer is to create simple and readable content, remaining professional and academic. However, you should also provide reliability and accuracy of the mentioned information and the only way to achieve this is to understand the discussed subject. This means that you need to research as much as you can before working on the writing itself. Researching is a great way to learn new data, which is supported by evidence and can greatly improve your critical thinking. This leads us to the most common problem any student has to face: where to find information and how to process it. Luckily, there is a plan, which can help you along the way and it is called stasis theory. In this article, I will tell you what it is about and how to use it effectively in your writing. Definition Stasis theory is a rhetorical approach, which aims to determine the goal of a certain debate issue. It was introduced by Aristotle (or Hermagoras according to other sources) and was used by rhetoricians and philosophers since ancient times. These great minds defined key questions, which were first used in legal cases. Mentioned questions were used in a particular order because the answer on every question depended on the previous one. Stasis theory is very useful for writing essays, conducting research and working as a part of a team. When stasis theory is used, it aims to determine the following elements: Conjecture, i.e. facts; Meaning of the issue (its definition); Importance of the issue (its quality); Plan of actions (so-called policy). Remember, it is crucial to follow the proper order of the theory. However, to simplify the process you can divide every category into subcategories. Below is an example of how you can divide mentioned stages to get the maximum benefits out of the writing process. Fact Did anything happen? What was the cause of the event? Can the event be changed? For example, does climate change exist? What caused it? What can we do about it? Definition Nature of the problem; What sort of a problem it is? What parts make up the problem and how they interlink? For example, is climate change defined solely as global warming or it includes other issues? Quality Does it have a positive or a negative impact? How serious the problem is? What are its consequences and who is the most affected by the issue? What will happen if the problem is solved? For example, are changes in the ecosystem really harmful? Who is the most affected? Policy Should any actions be applied? What groups of people or individuals are involved in the process of solving the problem? What actions should be done? What should happen to resolve the issue? For example, is it necessary to find a solution to climate changes? Who should be involved? Research Stasis theory is a great solution for writers, who are willing to get maximum information on the studied subject. It is a key element of successful work, so you need to understand the theory’s basic principles not depending on the type of assignment you have. Stasis theory acts as a list of the most efficient analytical questions that help in collecting the most recent and relevant information. When you are working on the questions, you need to evaluate multiple sources: literature, interviews, databases, journals, polls and much more. Stasis approach helps not only to get access to the most accurate information on the research but also assists in exploring the issue even before shaping a thesis. For example, you are given a very challenging topic and you need to provide your own opinion and arguments. Before you shape your own ideas, you can apply all the stasis questions and explore the subject. This will help you to decide what side you are on and what your ideas on the matter are. In addition, stasis theory questions help in identifying gaps in your knowledge. If you can’t answer two or more questions, this means that you must conduct deeper research. Teamwork When you are asked to work as a part of a team, stasis approach helps to find common issues by starting a dialogue until the consensus is found. To provide an example, let us again return to the question of global warming and whether it is caused only by the harmful behavior of the planet’s inhabitants. While parts of the team may think that climate change was caused by people, others would disagree. Reaching a certain stasis means finding an idea or term, which everyone could agree with. Even though team members may have different opinion on whether climate changes were caused by people or not, all of them agree that those changes have a negative effect on Earth (fact), it leads to endangering of multiple species (fact) and of course everyone will agree that this problem influences us all (quality). In such a way a stasis will be reached in at least two categories (quality and fact) but they would still disagree on the definition (whether the problem is caused by people or by other issues) and the policy (what actions should be taken to solve the problem). Even if opinions differ, this theory helps to create and hold a dialogue and to write a strong paper. Without such a theory, members of the team would probably drown in arguments and would feel stressed about the assignment. You should remember that working in a team means that you should always use arguments and reach a consensus if members have different opinion. For example, you can make a list of different reasons why people should be blamed for global warming and also provide arguments why they shouldn’t. Let the reader decide whose side to choose. Many field experts name stasis theory a sort of research guideline. Simply by using its standard questions, you will be able to get maximum information on the matter, shape your own opinion and write an assignment, which will be filled with credible data. This theory is also of great use for teams because it helps to find common grounds and solve conflict situations. Remember, stasis theory is all about logic and thorough research of a given issue, so don’t waste your time and get started immediately.

Marketing Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Marketing Management - Essay Example Management is the process of performing activities by using the help of other people. Managers use the management elements, which include planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Chwala highlights that marketing management is a business process, which involves â€Å"analyzing market opportunities, researching on the target markets, developing strategies for them, planning market tactics, implementing, and controlling the marketing initiatives. Further, Kotler describes marketing management as the process of achieving desired outcomes from a target market (13). It is therefore, a business process, which involves applying marketing techniques, and managing resources and activities related to marketing. Kotler highlights that marketing management process involves analyzing market opportunities, developing marketing strategies, planning marketing activities, managing, and controlling the marketing efforts (33). In the first step of analyzing market opportunities, the l eader identifies potential opportunities in the market while considering the organizations competences. This should be done by analyzing both the micro and macro environments in order to identify the best opportunities. In this step, the company can research and select market opportunities that are available. This can be done by defining the market, segmenting the market, market targeting and positioning in the market. The next step is the development of strategies for marketing whereby the marketer positions the organization strategically in the market. This step involves deciding on the brand, product lines, designs and the market. This is performed using the four P s marketing mix tools. Planning of marketing programs is the other step, and it involves making decisions on the expenditures, marketing mix and market allocation and budgets. One should set the level marketing budget that they intend to spend. Then, they allocate the budget among the various activities and the marketi ng mix tools. Lastly, they should allocate the budget to the various marketing programs in the target market (Kotler 34). The last step is management and control of the marketing programs. This step involves executing the plans, collecting feedback from the market and starting again in the planning step. Resources should be mobilized to implement and control the marketing programs of the organization Entrepreneurship is defined by the activities done by Entrepreneurs. Akrani highlights that Entrepreneur was derived from the French word Entrepredre meaning performing of activities. Entrepreneurs are the people who engage in the risky business activities of creating new businesses using their personal resources, through innovation of ideas, which are focused to satisfy the market needs (Akrani). Therefore, Entrepreneurship is the process of establishing opportunities in the market, and taking advantage of them to make a profit. There are ways in which responsible Entrepreneurial quali ties become essential for marketing management. Firstly, the Entrepreneurial qualities enable the leader to develop plans that meet their marketing goals. This can be applied in finance, production, sales, promotions, and personnel areas of marketing management. Secondly, responsible Entrepreneurial qualities enhance communication skills in marketing managem

The Management Challenges of Facebook as a Platform Case Study

The Management Challenges of Facebook as a Platform - Case Study Example Thus developers prefer Facebook to write the application than on MySpace. Facebook has a unique application area which offers and promotes the different applications from the developers. To strengthen this idea Facebook introduced the viral injection of News Feed which automatically spread the application once it was installed by a user. This competitive asset of Facebook spread the applications like wildfire resulting to which many developers are attracted towards the site for the easiest way to spread their applications to the users. Soon with this new concept, Facebook was considered as a platform for the small group software developers all over the world. Scrabulous is a Facebook application developed by two brothers Rajat & Jayant Agarwalla from Kolkata, India. It’s a Scrabble clone which allows the user to play online by inviting friends or other users. The application was a huge success for the developer and was awarded as the PC Worlds 100 best products in the year 2008 earning around $ 25,000 per month from the advertising. But since the two brothers don’t have the copyright for Scrabble legally they are forced by many players in the market like Electronic Arts and Real Networks to stop their application due to copyright issue and supported Scrabble to create an online version for the game to compete to take the place for Scrabulous. With over 140 new applications added each day almost 95 percent of the users have installed at least one application. To name a few Mafia Wars and Firm Villa is the most popular of all which attracted millions of customer each day for its uniqueness in designing and interesting social g aming technique generating about $ 600 million annually. The Facebook platform provided this shortcut path for success for the developer.

Comparison of 3 Stocks :: essays papers

Comparison of 3 Stocks All my stock market choices are technology based. nVIDIA is a producer of video card software, AMD a provider of motherboard processors and Electronic Arts a videogame publisher. nVIDIA is an example of a decreasing-cost industry. While a rather early new comer to the video card industry, nVIDIA was showing potential from the start. Major competition to nVIDIA’s foothold in the industry included 3dfx’s voodoo technology and ATI’s Rage. Although 3dfx’s foothold seemed unmovable, the next wave of technology to rise brought about their eventual downfall in the market. 3dfx’s lack of support for their next generation video cards (the voodoo4 & voodoo5) resulted in their being bought out by the nVIDIA Corporation. While nVIDIA released patches to over double the performance of the GeForce2’s technology, 3dfx’s patches for the Voodoo4 and Voodoo5 were riddled with flaws, resulting in performance issues for all of their customers. After the buyout, nVIDIA were now free to utilize the voodoo technology and excel in the market. Now ready to explode even bigger than before, will be the arrival of the GeForce3; boasting results over ten fold that of previous video cards, the GeForce3 will have unparallel performance in the market. This is observed by the slow increase in the percent gain, which will rise dramatically with the release of their new board. AMD, Advanced Micro Devices Inc., was a company entering a seemingly unbreakable market. Processor technology with a high initial cost categorizes it as a decreasing-cost industry. AMD, now the most popular provider of processor technology, came in against the multi-billion dollar corporation of Microsoft. Microsoft’s Pentium processor currently held a foothold in the market; however, AMD’s cheaper K-6 series (although not as powerful processor) provided an economical alternative to Microsoft’s more powerful Pentium II processor. With sales being lost to the more economical K6 series, Microsoft released the Celeron processor, which was widely accepted as a poor alternative to AMD’s K6. However, customer familiarity with the Microsoft brand name, allowed for Microsoft to recoup some of its losses in the field, but with AMD’s following rising, the K7 (Athlon) processor, took a firm hold in the field against the Pentium III. Furthermore, the Athlon Thunderbird (the successor to the K7) has now taken a majority control of the market, by outperforming the Pentium IV in most performance tests.

China to Release More Data on Air Pollution in Beijing Essay

China published more details of air quality data on Beijing, a critic said government Underestimate the seriousness of the problem of air pollution. News from Twitter said that Beijing’s â€Å"blue sky days†s air quality is still poor compared to the United States. Traffic jams and smog in the capital made the public mad and caused damage to the city’s leaders. Beijing’s air pollution is mainly from using of cars and the production of the factors. The air pollution in Beijing is a negative externality. Negative externality is cause by over consumption or production which outcome a spilled over negative effect which affected the third party, in this case which is the whole society in Beijing. The consumers of use of cars are consuming at the marginal private benefit instead of the marginal social benefit, which include the cost of the air pollution they produced by consuming the use of cars. When, market failure exists. A simply diagram can explain this clearly: Market of use of car In above diagram, it shows the market of consumption of use of car. Under free market condition, consumers will consumption at P*Q*(MPC=MPB). However, the social optimum level is P1Q1. It’s because consumers ignore the negative externality from their consumption of the use of car to the whole society of Beijing. MPB > MSB, market failure exists as a result (yellow area). As stated in the article, air quality in Beijing has been over declining. Its air condition has been poor polluted by both over consuming of use of cars. This is a negative externality to the whole society and it’s a market failure. There are few different ways for government to solve this problem via either consumers or producers. First, government can put a higher taxation on cars. This increases the cost of the car therefore price of the car will increase. According to the law of demand, quantity demand will fall when price increase, therefore the quantity demand of car will decrease. This minimizes the amount of consumers entering the market. An imperfect side of this action could outcome a small economic decline but it’s tiny compare to China’s manufacturing Second, the China government can do what they did during the Olympics that allowed private cars on the road by their license plate number. Legislation is a type of determinant of quantity demand. It limits the quantity demand limiting the use of car. However, a small amount of people might have 2 different cars which have 2 different license plate number that allow them keep driving private cars everyday but this is just a small amount of consumers have this ability which can be ignored. Third, government can also use advertisement to reduce the air pollution. Government can popularize the harm of overconsumption of use of car to aware from people keep using cars. Government can also focus on sustainable development. Advertisement is a type of demand determinates affecting consumers demand on a product. In this case advertisement may be able to reduce the demand of use of car thus reduce the air pollution that’s caused by car. A simple diagram may show this situation: Market of consumption of use of car The diagram shows the market of consumption of use of car. Under free market condition, consumers will consumption at P*Q*(MPC=MPB). However, when government increase the tax of car or add new legislation, the MPB curve will shift from MPB to MPB1 because the decrease of quantity demands of consumption of use of car. Thus, under free market condition, consumers will consume at P2Q2 and market failure reduces down from the yellow area down to the purple area. Above investigate is only about overconsumption of use of cars another reason as above mention could be over production of factories which outcome air pollution to the whole society. Government can increase tax on the firm that is overproducing goods, which out come air pollution that affect the whole society. Quantity supply of production of factories will fall as an outcome. Also, China government can introducte tradable permits to fix the amount of polluted air every year, here a government issues license tradable emission license to producers and they are allowed to pollute up to a designed level and the amount of pollution are allowed to sell their permit to other producers. These are all doable solution to minimize the amount of air pollution in Beijing, thus to reach the measurement standard of tiny particles that are 2.5 microns or less in diameter.

Useful Japanese Adverbs

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